CHILDES Japanese Miyata Corpus

Susanne Miyata Department of Medical Sciences Aichi Shukotoku University smiyata@asu.aasa.ac.jp website

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Citation information

Miyata, S. (1992). Wh-Questions of the Third Kind: The Strange Use of Wa-Questions in Japanese Children. Bulletin of Aichi Shukutoku Junior College, 31, 151-155.

Miyata, S. (1993). Japanische Kinderfragen: Zum Erwerb von Form - Inhalt - Funktion von Frageausdruecken, Hamburg: OAG.

Miyata, S. (1995). The Aki Corpus. Longitudinal Speech Data of a Japanese Boy aged 1.6-2.12. Bulletin of Aichi Shukutoku Junior College, 34, 183-191.

Miyata, S. (2000). The TAI Corpus: Longitudinal Speech Data of a Japanese Boy aged 1;5.20 - 3;1.1. Bulletin of Shukutoku Junior College 39, 77-85.

Miyata, S. (2012). The TAI Corpus: Longitudinal Speech Data of a Japanese Boy aged 1;5.20 - 3;1.1. Bulletin of Shukutoku Junior College 39, 77-85.

Miyata, S. (2012a). Nihongo MLU (heikin hatsuwachō) no gaidorain: Jiritsugo MLU oyobi keitaiso MLU no keisanhō [Guideline for Japanese MLU: How to compute MLUw and MLUm]. Kenkō Iryō Kagaku, 2, 1–15. http://aska-r.aasa.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10638/5113/1/0039-002-201203-1 -17.pdf (accessed 5 November 2012).

Miyata, S. (2012b). CHILDES nihongoban: Nihongoyoo CHILDES manyuaru 2012. [Japanese CHILDES: The 2012 CHILDES manual for Japanese]. http://www2.aasa.ac.jp/people/smiyata/CHILDESmanual/chapter01.html

Miyata, S. & N. Naka. (2014). JMOR06.2: The Japanese morphological analysis program based on CLAN. available at:

Oshima-Takane, Y. & B. MacWhinney (eds.) (1995, 2nd ed. 1998). CHILDES Manual for Japanese. Montreal: McGill University / Nagoya: Chukyo University.

In accordance with TalkBank rules, any use of data from this corpus must be accompanied by at least one of the above references.

Project Description

Warnings: The Aki and Ryo data are not suitable for the study of the mother’s overall language behavior, except for questioning and answering behavior. These data were originally sampled for the study of the child’s question development and many remarks of the mother are not transcribed. These omitted parts are unfortunately *unmarked*. The Aki and Ryo data have not been double-checked.

Aki and Ryo are children (both boys) from two unrelated families, both living in Nagoya. Both children’s parents gave their kind consent for the publication of this data. Although they consented to the use of their actual names, all last names in these files are replaced to preserve privacy.

The children were observed once a week for about one hour at their home while playing with their mother. The homes were both 4-room apartments in the center of Nagoya. In the previous observations it had proved convenient for both mother and observer to fix weekday and time. As Aki and Ryo were quite late risers, we decided to start each session after 10 A.M. After a short period of excitement, the child would settle down to play. The videotapings started usually about 10:20. For the recording I held the camera in my lap (rather than in front of my face), a method that had proved effective in prior observations. The setting was free indoor play. The mother was instructed to “make the child speak,” but there were no regulations concerning the kind of play.

The Tai data was collected during September, 1993 and June, 1995. Tai was after Ryo, Nao (unpublished), and Aki (Miyata, 1992, 1993, 1995) the fourth child observed longitudinally. For Tai's observation I applied the same schedule used for the observation of the other children: that is once a week for about one hour at his home while playing with his mother. In the previous observations it had proved convenient for both mother and observer, to fix weekday and time. In Tai's case, we decided to start about 10 o'clock in the morning. After a short period of preparation (video setting, and the indispensable cup of coffee for the observer), we would start with the recordings about 10:30.

The Tai recordings were done parallel on mini-discs (audio recording) and 8mm video. This was done out of two reasons. The sound quality for MD was considerably better than for the video. On the other hand, the video recording contains necessary information to be able to judge the utterances of the child. The second reason is the rather low reliability of the equipment. Actually, out of 75 MD recordings, 3 were not usable for different reasons (battery problems especially in the cold season, or tape damage). In this case the additional video-recording can step in for the audio recording.

For the recording, the video camera was placed on the TV set in the corner of the 16qm living room. With a fish eye lens, as well as a microphone with an recording angle of 90 degrees most of the sound and movement in this space could be captured. Different from Aki, Tai did not show any interest in the equipment, and we could leave it unattended on the TV set. Although the living room was open to a kitchen of the same size, this room was defined as "play room" used during the observational sessions, and the child accepted it soon. When getting older, he would prepare his toys and the cushion (zabuton) for the observer, and urging us to start with the play session right away.The observer would sit in the second corner, as passive as possible, in order not to disturb the mother-child interaction. The setting was free indoor play. The mother was instructed to 'make the child speak'. In order to obtain as many free spontaneous speech from the child as possible, she was told not to entertain 'not too much' story telling and singing. The recording time was a little more than 40 minutes, and was cut done to 40 minutes in the transcriptions. After the recording we would sit down in the kitchen and discuss the development of the child, his friendship relations, and his health, as well as general issues of education.

Transcription and Codes

The transcription was done in Romaji (Hebon) rather than in Japanese script, in order to better preserve the actual pronunciation. The transcription often uses UNIBET symbols, especially when the meaning of the utterance was unclear. For slightly deviant items with clear meaning no phonetical transcription is provided. The transcription was done in Wakachi2002 (Oshima-Takane& MacWhinney, 1998; Miyata, 2012b). Situational cues were provided to a certain extent, to make it possible to follow the conversation without visual cues. All files were provided with %ort tiers for Japanese Kana-Kanji script and hand-checked %mor or %trn morphological tiers (JMOR04.1 or later; please check the information in the Comment header tier; %trn; Miyata & Naka, 2014). MLU was computed with CLAN following the procedure explained in Miyata (2012a).

The sound data (Tai) was computerized, and sound-linked to CHAT files (MacWhinney, 2000). The transcription was done on the base of the beforehand linked sound stretches. The easiness to access the sound (it is possible to listen to an utterance just with one mouse-click) proved to be very convenient during this process.

Question intonation was coded using $FIN (falling intonation) and $RIN (rising into-nation). Where unmarked, assume rising intonation. Wa-questions were marked with the following four codes from Miyata (1992, 1993):
$WAP wa-Question (Place) papa wa? where is Papa?
$WAN wa-Question (Name) kore wa? what is this?
$WAE wa-Question(Educational) gomen ne wa? what about “sorry’?
$WAG wa-Question (General) papa wa ookii. mama wa? Papa’s big,what about Mama?

Aki

Participants:

• AMO, Mother, called “Okaasan,” 32 years, pianist, part-time lecturer in the piano section of a senior high school in Nagoya, and gives private lessons, and concerts.
• AFA, Father, called “Otoosan,” associate professor for biogenetics at a University in a nearby town to Nagoya
• REE, 2-year-old younger brother Ree, called “Reechan,” born 22-AUG-89 (Aki’s age: 1;10:26)
• OBA, baby sitter, called “Obasan,” 61 years, no university degree
• BAA, Grandmother, maternal), called “Baaba,” former primary school teacher
• OOB, Grandmother, paternal, called “Obaasan,” housewife
• SUZ, Investigator, called “Suuze(san),” friend of AMO, AKI, AMO, AFA, REE live to-gether. Occasionally BAA and sometimes also OOB come to visit.

Aki files

Age of AKI	File Name	Old File Name	Length	# AKI Utt	MLUm	MLUw
1;5.7	aki10507.cha	AKI01	11'20"	2	1	1
1;6.10	aki10610.cha	AKI02	25'15"	6	1	1
1;7.4	aki10704.cha	AKI03	13'35"+13'35"	8	1.125	1
1;8.23	aki10823.cha	AKI04	37'20"	34	1.353	1
1;9.20	aki10920.cha	AKI05	25'30"	15	1.467	1
1;10.0	aki11000.cha	AKI06	34'30"	52	1.135	1
1;11.29	aki11129.cha	AKI07	21'30"	43	1.349	1. 093
2;0.5	aki20005.cha	AKI08	38'50"	58	1.172	1.034
2;0.12	aki20012.cha	AKI09	35'50"	62	1.258	1. 113
2;0.19	aki20019.cha	AKI10	36'30"	74	1.324	1. 095
2;0.26	aki20026.cha	AKI11	38'00"	61	1.295	1. 066
2;1.3	aki20103.cha	AKI12	47'15"	80	1.263	1.025
2;1.10	aki20110.cha	AKI13	47'35"	101	1.248	1. 01
2;1.17	aki20117.cha	AKI14	36'10"	171	1.275	1. 076
2;1.24	aki20124.cha	AKI15	50'50"	191	1.178	1. 021
2;2.0	aki20200.cha	AKI16	48'00"	146	1.295	1. 055
2;2.11	aki20211.cha	AKI17	49'30"	248	1.194	1. 032
2;2.14	aki20214.cha	AKI18	46'40"	248	1.371	1. 101
2;2.22	aki20222.cha	AKI19	48'40"	266	1.489	1. 173
2;3.0	aki20300.cha	AKI20	48'25"	157	1.503	1. 268
2;3.4	aki20304.cha	AKI21	60'00"	396	1.639	1. 278
2;3.12	aki20312.cha	AKI22	60'00"	399	1.754	1. 373
2;3.18	aki20318.cha	AKI23	60'00"	494	1.891	1. 595
2;3.26	aki20326.cha	AKI24	60'00"	353	2.164	1. 765
2;4.4	aki20404.cha	AKI25	60'00"	400	2.158	1.74
2;4.9	aki20409.cha	AKI26	60'00"	312	1.907	1. 545
2;4.18	aki20418.cha	AKI27	60'00"	276	1.982	1. 656
2;4.29	aki20429.cha	AKI28	60'00"	426	2.239	1. 979
2;5.6	aki20506.cha	AKI29	60'00"	360	2.411	1. 897
2;5.13	aki20513.cha	AKI30	60'00"	437	1.81	1.51
2;5.20	aki20520.cha	AKI31	55'30	155	2.032	1. 639
2;6.16	aki20615.cha	AKI32	60'00"	351	2.464	1. 821
2;6.22	aki20622.cha	AKI33	60'00"	242	2.244	1. 76
2;6.30	aki20629.cha	AKI34	60'00"	302	2.778	2. 086
2;7.5	aki20705.cha	AKI35	60'00"	277	2.7	2.105
2;7.12	aki20712.cha	AKI36	60'00"	364	2.882	2. 162
2;7.19	aki20719.cha	AKI37	60'00"	371	2.647	2. 075
2;7.26	aki20726.cha	AKI38	60'00"	309	2.654	1. 994
2;8.3	aki20803.cha	AKI39	60'00"	342	2.81	2.14
2;8.11	aki20811.cha	AKI40	60'00"	384	2.391	1. 974
2;8.17	aki20817.cha	AKI41	60'00"	266	2.436	1. 883
2;8.24	aki20824.cha	AKI42	60'00"	339	2.684	2. 027
2;9.0	aki20900.cha	AKI43	60'00"	364	2.852	2. 104
2;9.7	aki20907.cha	AKI44	60'00"	290	3.066	2. 324
2;9.14	aki20914.cha	AKI45	60'00"	354	2.836	2. 04
2;9.24	aki20924.cha	AKI46	60'00"	348	2.813	2. 112
2;9.29	aki20929.cha	AKI47	60'00"	344	2.849	2. 084
2;10.7	aki21007.cha	AKI48	60'00"	368	2.891	2. 052
2;10.12	aki21012.cha	AKI49	60'00"	441	3.172	2. 399
2;10.20	aki21020.cha	AKI50	60'00"	401	3.025	2. 329
2;10.28	aki21028.cha	AKI51	60'00"	384	2.948	2. 258
2;11.0	aki21100.cha	AKI52	60'00"	371	2.997	2. 278
2;11.9	aki21109.cha	AKI53	60'00"	333	3.237	2. 321
2;11.16	aki21116.cha	AKI54	57'40"	410	2.983	2. 2
2;11.25	aki21125.cha	AKI55	35'00"	205	3.478	2. 546
3;0.0	aki30000.cha	AKI56	60'00"	362	3.478	2. 633
Total	56 Sessions			14,553

Ryo

Participants:

• RMO, Mother, called “Mama,” 32 years, pianist, part-time lecturer in a music school in Nagoya, giving also private lessons at home.
• RFA, Father, called “Papa,” clarinetist, part-time lecturer in a music school in Nagoya. He too gives private lessons at home, and concerts.
• YUK, 6-year-old elder sister Yukari, called “Yukarichan,” (Yukari’s age at RYO birth: four years)
• SUZ, Investigator, called “Suuze(san),” friend of RMO.
• RMO, RFA, YUK live together.

Ryo files

Age of RYO	File Name	# RYO Utt	MLUm	MLUw
1;3.03	Ryo10303	27	1	1
1;3.06	Ryo10306	22	1	1
1;3.20	Ryo10320	11	2	1
1;3.27	Ryo10327	15	1	1
1;4.04	Ryo10404	5	1	1
1;5.16	Ryo10516	194	1	1
1;05.22	Ryo10522	17	1	1
1;05.29	Ryo10529	9	1	1
1;06.05	Ryo10605	8	1	1
1;06.13	Ryo10613	29	1	1
1;06.19	Ryo10619	77	1	1
1;06.26	Ryo10626	55	1.036	1
1;07.12	Ryo10712	31	1.111	1
1;07.21	Ryo10721	30	1.417	1
1;07.31	Ryo10731	57	1.034	1
1;08.09	Ryo10809	81	1.167	1.028
1;08.17	Ryo10817	156	1.179	1
1;08.24	Ryo10824	20	1	1
1;09.01	Ryo10901	85	1	1
1;09.08	Ryo10908	24	1	1
1;09.15	Ryo10915	81	1.04	1
1;09.22	Ryo10922	62	1.469	1
1;10.05	Ryo11005	138	1.438	1.068
1;10.12	Ryo11012	276	1.174	1
1;10.19	Ryo11019	49	1.115	1
1;10.26	Ryo11026	167	1.125	1
1;10.30	Ryo11030	193	1.604	1.009
1;11.09	Ryo11109	126	1.392	1.02
1;11.18	Ryo11118	241	1.362	1.034
1;11.28	Ryo11128	179	1.786	1.25
2;00.08	Ryo20008	367	1.528	1.073
2;00.15	Ryo20015	204	1.711	1.07
2;00.25	Ryo20025	112	1.787	1.253
2;00.28	Ryo20028	301	2.036	1.357
2;01.04	Ryo20104	286	1.68	1.286
2;01.11	Ryo20111	130	2.396	1.545
2;01.18	Ryo20118	203	1.993	1.326
2;01.25	Ryo20125	353	1.945	1.346
2;02.09	Ryo20209	147	2.113	1.481
2;02.16	Ryo20216	252	1.829	1.347
2;02.23	Ryo20223	196	2.04	1.624
2;02.29	Ryo20229	255	2.253	1.612
2;03.06	Ryo20306	357	2.013	1.581
2;03.17	Ryo20317	265	2.077	1.544
2;03.20	Ryo20320	284	2.2	1.536
2;03.27	Ryo20327	121	2.865	1.946
2;04.04	Ryo20404	216	2.013	1.48
2;04.11	Ryo20411	114	2.639	1.917
2;04.22	Ryo20422	144	2.83	1.682
2;04.25	Ryo20425	123	2.728	2.037
2;05.01	Ryo20501	178	2.582	1.9
2;05.08	Ryo20508	231	2.343	1.584
2;05.15	Ryo20515	131	2.792	2.01
2;05.22	Ryo20522	148	2.533	1.876
2;05.29	Ryo20529	199	2.912	2.152
2;06.05	Ryo20605	207	2.772	1.798
2;06.12	Ryo20612	218	2.804	2.029
2;06.20	Ryo20620	224	3.052	2.126
2;06.23	Ryo20623	191	3.174	2.212
2;07.04	Ryo20704	101	2.63	1.84
2;07.11	Ryo20711	126	3.646	2.444
2;07.19	Ryo20719	95	2.786	2
2;07.25	Ryo20725	167	2.82	2.008
2;08.01	Ryo20801	195	2.931	2.138
2;08.08	Ryo20808	254	3.649	2.445
2;08.17	Ryo20817	160	3.564	2.47
2;08.22	Ryo20822	140	3.518	2.291
2;08.29	Ryo20829	305	3.464	2.472
2;09.06	Ryo20906	161	3.85	2.606
2;09.13	Ryo20913	200	3.472	2.315
2;09.24	Ryo20924	261	2.762	1.901
2;09.27	Ryo20927	202	3.153	2.056
2;10.07	Ryo21007	250	3.293	2.261
2;10.10	Ryo21010	262	2.783	2.066
2;10.17	Ryo21017	145	3.116	2.137
2;10.24	Ryo21024	82	3.629	2.5
2;11.01	Ryo21101	140	3.806	2.602
2;11.09	Ryo21109	182	2.985	2.088
2;11.16	Ryo21116	134	3.317	2.376
2;11.23	Ryo21123	148	3.508	2.322
3;00.16	Ryo30016	125	3.676	2.52
3;00.23	Ryo30023	92	3	1.926
3;00.30	Ryo30030	94	3.437	2.563
Total	83 Sessions	12,643

Tai

Tai was an active, curious, and sensitive child, with a long concentration span. He displayed a high sense of responsibility. His pronunciation was very clear. He uttered his first word at 011. At present (March, 2000) he is a healthy and awake first grader with excellent records. Other participants:

• TMO Mother, called "Kakka", 29 years, housewife, former secretary at a University in Nagoya. Educational level 15
• TFA Father, called "Totto", 30 years, research engineer. Educational level 15
• SUU Investigator, called "Suuchan", friend of TMO

Tai's parents gave their kind consent for the publication of this data. Although they consented to the use of their actual names, I have decided to anonymize all last names (except my own) and other identifying information throughout the corpus in order to preserve a certain amount of privacy.

Tai files

Age of TAI	File Name	Old File Name	Length	# TAI utt	MLUm	MLUw
1;5.20	tai10520.cha	T930930	40'00"	210	1.514	1 .21
1;5.27	tai10527ab.cha	T931007	40'00"	237	1.591	1.274
1;6.4	tai10604.cha	T931014	30'00"	212	1.288	1. 156
1;6.11	tai10611ab.cha	T931021	40'00"	166	1.44	1.175
1;6.19	tai10619.cha	T931029	33'20"	151	1.788	1 .199
1;6.24	tai10624.cha	T931103	40'00"	223	1.924	1 .448
1;7.1	tai10701.cha	T931111	40'00"	266	1.477	1. 203
1;7.8	tai10708.cha	T931118	40'00"	252	1.635	1. 306
1;7.15	tai10715.cha	T931125	40'00"	222	1.82	1. 293
1;8.13	tai10813.cha	T931223	40'00"	311	1.691	1 .199
1;8.28	tai10828.cha	T940107	40'00"	258	2.105	1 .477
1;9.3	tai10903.cha	T940113	40'00"	228	2.329	1. 548
1;9.10	tai10910.cha	T940120	40'00"	317	2.331	1 .59
1;9.17	tai10917.cha	T940127	40'00"	311	2.18	1. 502
1;9.25	tai10925.cha	T940204	40'00"	310	2.223	1 .652
1;10.0	tai11000.cha	T940210	40'00"	344	2.235	1 .538
1;10.7	tai11007.cha	T940217	40'00"	275	2.313	1 .607
1;10.14	tai11014.cha	T940224	40'00"	301	2.233	1.525
1;10.20	tai11020.cha	T940303	40'00"	379	2.348	1.734
1;11.1	tai11101.cha	T940311	40'00"	351	2.467	1 .849
1;11.14	tai11114.cha	T940324	40'00"	176	2.739	1.932
1;11.20	tai11120.cha	T940330	40'00"	357	2.529	1.745
1;11.28	tai11128.cha	T940407	40'00"	441	3.306	2.499
2;0.4	tai20004.cha	T940414	40'00"	422	2.519	1. 78
2;0.11	tai20011.cha	T940421	40'00"	342	2.471	1 .807
2;0.18	tai20018.cha	T940428	40'00"	318	2.689	1 .906
2;0.25	tai20025.cha	T940505	40'00"	326	2.929	1 .988
2;1.2	tai20102.cha	T940512	40'00"	237	3.042	2. 072
2;1.9	tai20109.cha	T940519	40'00"	282	3.004	2. 131
2;1.16	tai20116.cha	T940526	40'00"	319	3.248	2 .307
2;1.23	tai20123.cha	T940602	40'00"	270	3.737	2 .611
2;1.30	tai20130.cha	T940609	40'00"	340	3.368	2 .385
2;2.6	tai20206.cha	T940616	40'00"	196	3.485	2. 474
2;2.13	tai20213.cha	T940623	40'00"	398	3.178	2 .329
2;2.20	tai20220.cha	T940630	40'00"	378	3.016	2 .071
2;2.27	tai20227.cha	T940707	40'00"	512	3.609	2 .518
2;3.4	tai20304.cha	T940714	40'00"	441	3.413	2. 397
2;3.11	tai20311.cha	T940721	40'00"	378	2.831	1 .958
2;3.18	tai20318.cha	T940728	40'00"	438	3.288	2 .274
2;3.25	tai20325.cha	T940804	40'00"	434	2.998	2 .104
2;4.3	tai20403.cha	T940813	40'00"	332	3.102	2. 238
2;4.15	tai20415.cha	T940825	40'00"	364	2.934	2 .025
2;4.21	tai20421.cha	T940831	under revision	297	3.158	2.111
2;4.30	tai20430.cha	T940909	40'00"	318	3.425	2 .415
2;5.6	tai20506.cha	T940916	40'00"	310	2.916	2. 21
2;5.12	tai20512.cha	T940922	40'00"	265	3.325	2 .434
2;5.19	tai20519.cha	T940929	40'00"	360	3.564	2 .556
2;5.26	tai20526.cha	T941006	40'00"	254	3.134	2 .213
2;6.3	tai20603.cha	T941013	40'00"	290	3.486	2. 5
2;6.10	tai20610.cha	T941020	40'00"	279	3.688	2 .588
2;6.18	tai20618.cha	T941028	40'00"	281	4.036	2 .783
2;6.24	tai20624.cha	T941103	40'00"	357	3.182	2 .216
2;7.0	tai20700.cha	T941110	40'00"	309	3.252	2. 301
2;7.7	tai20707.cha	T941117	40'00"	325	3.563	2. 569
2;7.13	tai20713.cha	T941123	40'00"	322	3.516	2 .457
2;7.21	tai20721.cha	T941201	40'00"	335	4.006	2 .815
2;7.28	tai20728.cha	T941208	40'00"	370	3.932	2 .786
2;8.5	tai20805.cha	T941215	40'00"	214	4.486	3. 187
2;8.11	tai20811.cha	T941222	40'00"	297	4.04	2. 902
2;9.2	tai20902.cha	T950112	40'00"	211	4.175	2. 919
2;9.9	tai20909.cha	T950119	40'00"	267	4.779	3. 536
2;9.17	tai20917.cha	T950127	40'00"	216	3.806	2 .676
2;9.23	tai20923.cha	T950202	40'00"	316	3.133	2 .193
2;9.30	tai20930.cha	T950209	40'00"	318	4.261	2 .947
2;10.6	tai21006.cha	T950216	40'00"	384	3.286	2 .406
2;10.13	tai21013.cha	T950223	40'00"	294	4.085	2.765
2;10.20	tai21020.cha	T950302	40'00"	371	3.663	2.547
2;11.0	tai21100.cha	T950310	40'00"	304	4.059	3 .013
2;11.14	tai21114.cha	T950324	40'00"	293	5.003	3.184
2;11.20	tai21120.cha	T950330	40'00"	238	5.672	4.046
3;0.3	tai30003.cha	T950413	40'00"	260	4.227	3. 096
3;0.24	tai30024.cha	T950504	40'00"	361	5.058	3 .49
3;1.1	tai30101.cha	T950511	40'00"	274	4.923	3. 412
3;1.8	tai30108.cha	T950518	40'00"	315	4.133	2. 946
3;1.29	tai30129.cha	T950608	40'00"	418	3.787	2 .703
Total		75 Sessions		23,048

Acknowledgements

I gratefully acknowledge the support of this research by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture through the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Areas 10114104 entitled "Development of Mind", and through the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (Database) 184. I would like to thank Brian MacWhinney (Carnegie Mellon University) for his understanding technical support during the various phases of transcription, the members of the JCHAT Project for their encouraging supportment, and the numerous students who helped with the transcription, especially Yumiko Naganawa and Naomi Hamasaki. My special thanks go to Beverley Curran (Aichi Shukutoku University) for the emotional support and encouragement throughout this work. My warmest thanks though go to Tai and his mother. Without their understanding collaboration, this project would not have been possible.